Home LiteratureArticle Details
PMID: 19457423 Published · ppublish English Journal Article Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Review

Patterns and scales in gastrointestinal microbial ecology.

Gastroenterology ·Vol. 136 ·No. 6 ·2009-05-00 ·Pages 1989-2002

Camp JG, Kanther M, Semova I, Rawls JF

Abstract

The body surfaces of humans and other animals are colonized at birth by microorganisms. The majority of microbial residents on the human body exist within gastrointestinal (GI) tract communities, where they contribute to many aspects of host biology and pathobiology. Recent technological advances have expanded our ability to perceive the membership and physiologic traits of microbial communities along the GI tract. To translate this information into a mechanistic and practical understanding of host-microbe and microbe-microbe relationships, it is necessary to recast our conceptualization of the GI tract and its resident microbial communities in ecological terms. This review depicts GI microbial ecology in the context of 2 fundamental ecological concepts: (1) the patterns of biodiversity within the GI tract and (2) the scales of time, space, and environment within which we perceive those patterns. We show how this conceptual framework can be used to integrate our existing knowledge and identify important open questions in GI microbial ecology.

MeSH Terms
Animals Bacteria/genetics,isolation & purification,pathogenicity Gastrointestinal Tract/microbiology Humans Intestinal Mucosa/microbiology RNA, Bacterial/genetics
Chemicals
RNA, Bacterial
Authors & Affiliations
4 authors, click to expand affiliations / ORCID
Camp J Gray
Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Kanther Michelle
Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Semova Ivana
Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Rawls John F
Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
References (128)
128 references, click to expand
  1. Genome analysis of multiple pathogenic isolates of Streptococcus agalactiae: implications for the microbial "pan-genome".
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Sep 27;102(39):13950-5 PMID: 16172379
  2. Functional genomic and metabolic studies of the adaptations of a prominent adult human gut symbiont, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, to the suckling period.
    J Biol Chem. 2006 Nov 24;281(47):36269-79 PMID: 16968696
  3. 'Everything is everywhere, but, the environment selects'; what did Baas Becking and Beijerinck really say?
    Environ Microbiol. 2006 Apr;8(4):755-8 PMID: 16584487
  4. Infectious history.
    Science. 2000 Apr 14;288(5464):287-93 PMID: 10777411
  5. Local administration of antisense phosphorothioate oligonucleotides to the p65 subunit of NF-kappa B abrogates established experimental colitis in mice.
    Nat Med. 1996 Sep;2(9):998-1004 PMID: 8782457
  6. Gastrointestinal microbiology enters the metagenomics era.
    Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2008 Jan;24(1):4-10 PMID: 18043225
  7. Social evolution theory for microorganisms.
    Nat Rev Microbiol. 2006 Aug;4(8):597-607 PMID: 16845430
  8. IKKbeta links inflammation and tumorigenesis in a mouse model of colitis-associated cancer.
    Cell. 2004 Aug 6;118(3):285-96 PMID: 15294155
  9. We know you are in there: conversing with the indigenous gut microbiota.
    Res Microbiol. 2007 Jan-Feb;158(1):2-9 PMID: 17223317
  10. The species composition of the human intestinal microbiota differs between particle-associated and liquid phase communities.
    Environ Microbiol. 2008 Dec;10(12):3275-83 PMID: 18713272
  11. Role of the innate immune system in host defence against bacterial infections: focus on the Toll-like receptors.
    J Intern Med. 2007 Jun;261(6):511-28 PMID: 17547708
  12. Gut microbiota and its possible relationship with obesity.
    Mayo Clin Proc. 2008 Apr;83(4):460-9 PMID: 18380992
  13. Molecular eco-systems biology: towards an understanding of community function.
    Nat Rev Microbiol. 2008 Sep;6(9):693-9 PMID: 18587409
  14. Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP): an emerging method for characterizing diversity among homologous populations of amplification products.
    Curr Opin Microbiol. 1999 Jun;2(3):323-7 PMID: 10383864
  15. An ecological and evolutionary perspective on human-microbe mutualism and disease.
    Nature. 2007 Oct 18;449(7164):811-8 PMID: 17943117
  16. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest.
    Nature. 2006 Dec 21;444(7122):1027-31 PMID: 17183312
  17. Counting the uncountable: statistical approaches to estimating microbial diversity.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 2001 Oct;67(10):4399-406 PMID: 11571135
  18. Oligonucleotide microarray for 16S rRNA gene-based detection of all recognized lineages of sulfate-reducing prokaryotes in the environment.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 Oct;68(10):5064-81 PMID: 12324358
  19. Assembly of the human intestinal microbiota.
    Trends Ecol Evol. 2006 Sep;21(9):517-23 PMID: 16820245
  20. A humanized gnotobiotic mouse model of host-archaeal-bacterial mutualism.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Jun 27;103(26):10011-6 PMID: 16782812
  21. Evolution of mammals and their gut microbes.
    Science. 2008 Jun 20;320(5883):1647-51 PMID: 18497261
  22. Mechanisms underlying the resistance to diet-induced obesity in germ-free mice.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Jan 16;104(3):979-84 PMID: 17210919
  23. Symbiotic gut microbes modulate human metabolic phenotypes.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Feb 12;105(6):2117-22 PMID: 18252821
  24. Communicable ulcerative colitis induced by T-bet deficiency in the innate immune system.
    Cell. 2007 Oct 5;131(1):33-45 PMID: 17923086
  25. Classification of methanogenic bacteria by 16S ribosomal RNA characterization.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977 Oct;74(10):4537-41 PMID: 16592452
  26. Reciprocal gut microbiota transplants from zebrafish and mice to germ-free recipients reveal host habitat selection.
    Cell. 2006 Oct 20;127(2):423-33 PMID: 17055441
  27. Effect of genome size and rrn gene copy number on PCR amplification of 16S rRNA genes from a mixture of bacterial species.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 1995 Jul;61(7):2798-801 PMID: 7618894
  28. Micro-eukaryotic diversity of the human distal gut microbiota: qualitative assessment using culture-dependent and -independent analysis of faeces.
    ISME J. 2008 Dec;2(12):1183-93 PMID: 18670396
  29. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Nov 2;101(44):15718-23 PMID: 15505215
  30. Secreted enteric antimicrobial activity localises to the mucus surface layer.
    Gut. 2008 Jun;57(6):764-71 PMID: 18250125
  31. A genomic view of the human-Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron symbiosis.
    Science. 2003 Mar 28;299(5615):2074-6 PMID: 12663928
  32. The inner of the two Muc2 mucin-dependent mucus layers in colon is devoid of bacteria.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Sep 30;105(39):15064-9 PMID: 18806221
  33. Epithelial NEMO links innate immunity to chronic intestinal inflammation.
    Nature. 2007 Mar 29;446(7135):557-61 PMID: 17361131
  34. Development of the human infant intestinal microbiota.
    PLoS Biol. 2007 Jul;5(7):e177 PMID: 17594176
  35. Microbial cell individuality and the underlying sources of heterogeneity.
    Nat Rev Microbiol. 2006 Aug;4(8):577-87 PMID: 16845428
  36. The interaction between bacteria and bile.
    FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2005 Sep;29(4):625-51 PMID: 16102595
  37. Human symbionts use a host-like pathway for surface fucosylation.
    Science. 2005 Mar 18;307(5716):1778-81 PMID: 15774760
  38. Abundant and diverse fungal microbiota in the murine intestine.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 2006 Jan;72(1):793-801 PMID: 16391120
  39. Faecalibacterium prausnitzii is an anti-inflammatory commensal bacterium identified by gut microbiota analysis of Crohn disease patients.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Oct 28;105(43):16731-6 PMID: 18936492
  40. How host-microbial interactions shape the nutrient environment of the mammalian intestine.
    Annu Rev Nutr. 2002;22:283-307 PMID: 12055347
  41. Intestinal alkaline phosphatase is a gut mucosal defense factor maintained by enteral nutrition.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Mar 4;105(9):3551-6 PMID: 18292227
  42. Bile salt biotransformations by human intestinal bacteria.
    J Lipid Res. 2006 Feb;47(2):241-59 PMID: 16299351
  43. The pervasive effects of an antibiotic on the human gut microbiota, as revealed by deep 16S rRNA sequencing.
    PLoS Biol. 2008 Nov 18;6(11):e280 PMID: 19018661
  44. Systemic multicompartmental effects of the gut microbiome on mouse metabolic phenotypes.
    Mol Syst Biol. 2008;4:219 PMID: 18854818
  45. Microbes and their products--physiological effects upon mammalian mucosa.
    Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2004 Apr 19;56(6):727-62 PMID: 15063587
  46. Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity.
    Nature. 2006 Dec 21;444(7122):1022-3 PMID: 17183309
  47. DGGE/TGGE a method for identifying genes from natural ecosystems.
    Curr Opin Microbiol. 1999 Jun;2(3):317-22 PMID: 10383868
  48. Host-mediated inflammation disrupts the intestinal microbiota and promotes the overgrowth of Enterobacteriaceae.
    Cell Host Microbe. 2007 Aug 16;2(2):119-29 PMID: 18005726
  49. High-throughput diversity and functionality analysis of the gastrointestinal tract microbiota.
    Gut. 2008 Nov;57(11):1605-15 PMID: 18941009
  50. Innate immunity and intestinal microbiota in the development of Type 1 diabetes.
    Nature. 2008 Oct 23;455(7216):1109-13 PMID: 18806780
  51. The human gut microbiome: implications for future health care.
    Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2008 Aug;10(4):396-403 PMID: 18627653
  52. Living on a surface: swarming and biofilm formation.
    Trends Microbiol. 2008 Oct;16(10):496-506 PMID: 18775660
  53. Development of an extensive set of 16S rDNA-targeted primers for quantification of pathogenic and indigenous bacteria in faecal samples by real-time PCR.
    J Appl Microbiol. 2004;97(6):1166-77 PMID: 15546407
  54. Loss of epithelial RelA results in deregulated intestinal proliferative/apoptotic homeostasis and susceptibility to inflammation.
    J Immunol. 2008 Feb 15;180(4):2588-99 PMID: 18250470
  55. Metabolic diversity of the intestinal microbiota: implications for health and disease.
    J Nutr. 2007 Mar;137(3 Suppl 2):751S-5S PMID: 17311972
  56. Molecular analysis of the bacterial microbiota in the human stomach.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Jan 17;103(3):732-7 PMID: 16407106
  57. Deletion of TLR5 results in spontaneous colitis in mice.
    J Clin Invest. 2007 Dec;117(12):3909-21 PMID: 18008007
  58. Metabolic profiling reveals a contribution of gut microbiota to fatty liver phenotype in insulin-resistant mice.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Aug 15;103(33):12511-6 PMID: 16895997
  59. Evolution of symbiotic bacteria in the distal human intestine.
    PLoS Biol. 2007 Jul;5(7):e156 PMID: 17579514
  60. Methanogenic archaea in health and disease: a novel paradigm of microbial pathogenesis.
    Int J Med Microbiol. 2009 Feb;299(2):99-108 PMID: 18757236
  61. Glycan foraging in vivo by an intestine-adapted bacterial symbiont.
    Science. 2005 Mar 25;307(5717):1955-9 PMID: 15790854
  62. Analysis of bacterial bowel communities of IBD patients: what has it revealed?
    Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2008 Jun;14(6):858-67 PMID: 18275077
  63. Defined spatial structure stabilizes a synthetic multispecies bacterial community.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Nov 25;105(47):18188-93 PMID: 19011107
  64. Gut microorganisms, mammalian metabolism and personalized health care.
    Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005 May;3(5):431-8 PMID: 15821725
  65. A synthetic Escherichia coli predator-prey ecosystem.
    Mol Syst Biol. 2008;4:187 PMID: 18414488
  66. The convergence of carbohydrate active gene repertoires in human gut microbes.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Sep 30;105(39):15076-81 PMID: 18806222
  67. Diet-induced obesity is linked to marked but reversible alterations in the mouse distal gut microbiome.
    Cell Host Microbe. 2008 Apr 17;3(4):213-23 PMID: 18407065
  68. Comparison of DNA extraction methods for analysis of turkey cecal microbiota.
    J Appl Microbiol. 2007 Feb;102(2):401-9 PMID: 17241345
  69. A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins.
    Nature. 2009 Jan 22;457(7228):480-4 PMID: 19043404
  70. Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine.
    Science. 2005 Mar 25;307(5717):1915-20 PMID: 15790844
  71. Microbiology in the post-genomic era.
    Nat Rev Microbiol. 2008 Jun;6(6):419-30 PMID: 18475305
  72. Rules of engagement: interspecies interactions that regulate microbial communities.
    Annu Rev Microbiol. 2008;62:375-401 PMID: 18544040
  73. Microbial ecology of the gastrointestinal tract.
    Annu Rev Microbiol. 1977;31:107-33 PMID: 334036
  74. Effects of mode of delivery and necrotising enterocolitis on the intestinal microflora in preterm infants.
    Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2004 Jun;23(6):463-70 PMID: 15168141
  75. Epithelial-cell-intrinsic IKK-beta expression regulates intestinal immune homeostasis.
    Nature. 2007 Mar 29;446(7135):552-6 PMID: 17322906
  76. Cultivating the uncultured.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Nov 26;99(24):15681-6 PMID: 12438682
  77. Microbes in gastrointestinal health and disease.
    Gastroenterology. 2009 Jan;136(1):65-80 PMID: 19026645
  78. High-density universal 16S rRNA microarray analysis reveals broader diversity than typical clone library when sampling the environment.
    Microb Ecol. 2007 Apr;53(3):371-83 PMID: 17334858
  79. Genomic and metabolic adaptations of Methanobrevibacter smithii to the human gut.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Jun 19;104(25):10643-8 PMID: 17563350
  80. Linking microbial phylogeny to metabolic activity at the single-cell level by using enhanced element labeling-catalyzed reporter deposition fluorescence in situ hybridization (EL-FISH) and NanoSIMS.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008 May;74(10):3143-50 PMID: 18359832
  81. Obesity alters gut microbial ecology.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Aug 2;102(31):11070-5 PMID: 16033867
  82. Microbial influences in inflammatory bowel diseases.
    Gastroenterology. 2008 Feb;134(2):577-94 PMID: 18242222
  83. The Bacillus subtilis quorum-sensing molecule CSF contributes to intestinal homeostasis via OCTN2, a host cell membrane transporter.
    Cell Host Microbe. 2007 Jun 14;1(4):299-308 PMID: 18005709
  84. Recognition of commensal microflora by toll-like receptors is required for intestinal homeostasis.
    Cell. 2004 Jul 23;118(2):229-41 PMID: 15260992
  85. The human microbiome project.
    Nature. 2007 Oct 18;449(7164):804-10 PMID: 17943116
  86. Colonization of the cecal mucosa by Helicobacter hepaticus impacts the diversity of the indigenous microbiota.
    Infect Immun. 2005 Oct;73(10):6952-61 PMID: 16177375
  87. Toll-like receptors activate innate and adaptive immunity by using dendritic cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic mechanisms.
    Immunity. 2008 Aug 15;29(2):272-82 PMID: 18656388
  88. The p50 subunit of NF-kappaB is critical for in vivo clearance of the noninvasive enteric pathogen Citrobacter rodentium.
    Infect Immun. 2008 Nov;76(11):4978-88 PMID: 18694964
  89. Mucosal glycan foraging enhances fitness and transmission of a saccharolytic human gut bacterial symbiont.
    Cell Host Microbe. 2008 Nov 13;4(5):447-57 PMID: 18996345
  90. Contributions of microbes in vertebrate gastrointestinal tract to production and conservation of nutrients.
    Physiol Rev. 1998 Apr;78(2):393-427 PMID: 9562034
  91. Genomic and metabolic studies of the impact of probiotics on a model gut symbiont and host.
    PLoS Biol. 2006 Nov;4(12):e413 PMID: 17132046
  92. The role of ecological theory in microbial ecology.
    Nat Rev Microbiol. 2007 May;5(5):384-92 PMID: 17435792
  93. Fecal microflora in healthy infants born by different methods of delivery: permanent changes in intestinal flora after cesarean delivery.
    J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1999 Jan;28(1):19-25 PMID: 9890463
  94. In vivo imaging and genetic analysis link bacterial motility and symbiosis in the zebrafish gut.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 May 1;104(18):7622-7 PMID: 17456593
  95. Paneth cells directly sense gut commensals and maintain homeostasis at the intestinal host-microbial interface.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Dec 30;105(52):20858-63 PMID: 19075245
  96. The surprisingly diverse ways that prokaryotes move.
    Nat Rev Microbiol. 2008 Jun;6(6):466-76 PMID: 18461074
  97. Communication in bacteria: an ecological and evolutionary perspective.
    Nat Rev Microbiol. 2006 Apr;4(4):249-58 PMID: 16501584
  98. Molecular-phylogenetic characterization of microbial community imbalances in human inflammatory bowel diseases.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Aug 21;104(34):13780-5 PMID: 17699621
  99. Metagenomic analyses of an uncultured viral community from human feces.
    J Bacteriol. 2003 Oct;185(20):6220-3 PMID: 14526037
  100. Rapid determination of 16S ribosomal RNA sequences for phylogenetic analyses.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1985 Oct;82(20):6955-9 PMID: 2413450
  101. Functional metagenomic profiling of nine biomes.
    Nature. 2008 Apr 3;452(7187):629-32 PMID: 18337718
  102. Are biologists in 'future shock'? Symbiosis integrates biology across domains.
    Nat Rev Microbiol. 2008 Oct;6(10):789-92 PMID: 18794916
  103. Ecological and evolutionary forces shaping microbial diversity in the human intestine.
    Cell. 2006 Feb 24;124(4):837-48 PMID: 16497592
  104. Functional genomic studies of uropathogenic Escherichia coli and host urothelial cells when intracellular bacterial communities are assembled.
    J Biol Chem. 2007 Jul 20;282(29):21259-67 PMID: 17504765
  105. Design and evaluation of PCR primers to amplify bacterial 16S ribosomal DNA fragments used for community fingerprinting.
    J Microbiol Methods. 2001 Apr;44(3):253-62 PMID: 11240048
  106. Viscosity gradient within the mucus layer determines the mucosal barrier function and the spatial organization of the intestinal microbiota.
    Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2007 Aug;13(8):963-70 PMID: 17455202
  107. A short-oligonucleotide microarray that allows improved detection of gastrointestinal tract microbial communities.
    BMC Microbiol. 2008 Nov 11;8:195 PMID: 19014434
  108. Microbial biogeography: from taxonomy to traits.
    Science. 2008 May 23;320(5879):1039-43 PMID: 18497288
  109. Shotgun metaproteomics of the human distal gut microbiota.
    ISME J. 2009 Feb;3(2):179-89 PMID: 18971961
  110. Automated approach for ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis of microbial diversity and its application to freshwater bacterial communities.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 1999 Oct;65(10):4630-6 PMID: 10508099
  111. Characterization of probiotic Escherichia coli isolates with a novel pan-genome microarray.
    Genome Biol. 2007;8(12):R267 PMID: 18088402
  112. Opinion: Re-evaluating prokaryotic species.
    Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005 Sep;3(9):733-9 PMID: 16138101
  113. Local dispersal promotes biodiversity in a real-life game of rock-paper-scissors.
    Nature. 2002 Jul 11;418(6894):171-4 PMID: 12110887
  114. Evolution of species interactions in a biofilm community.
    Nature. 2007 Feb 1;445(7127):533-6 PMID: 17268468
  115. Use of 16S rRNA gene-targeted group-specific primers for real-time PCR analysis of predominant bacteria in human feces.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004 Dec;70(12):7220-8 PMID: 15574920
  116. Dual-association of gnotobiotic IL-10-/- mice with 2 nonpathogenic commensal bacteria induces aggressive pancolitis.
    Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2007 Dec;13(12):1457-66 PMID: 17763473
  117. Gut microbiota: a potential new territory for drug targeting.
    Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2008 Feb;7(2):123-9 PMID: 18239669
  118. Major viral impact on the functioning of benthic deep-sea ecosystems.
    Nature. 2008 Aug 28;454(7208):1084-7 PMID: 18756250
  119. Factors influencing the composition of the intestinal microbiota in early infancy.
    Pediatrics. 2006 Aug;118(2):511-21 PMID: 16882802
  120. Development of a 5-step multi-chamber reactor as a simulation of the human intestinal microbial ecosystem.
    Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 1993 May;39(2):254-8 PMID: 7763732
  121. Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora.
    Science. 2005 Jun 10;308(5728):1635-8 PMID: 15831718
  122. An immunomodulatory molecule of symbiotic bacteria directs maturation of the host immune system.
    Cell. 2005 Jul 15;122(1):107-18 PMID: 16009137
  123. Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome.
    Science. 2006 Jun 2;312(5778):1355-9 PMID: 16741115
  124. The micro-Petri dish, a million-well growth chip for the culture and high-throughput screening of microorganisms.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Nov 13;104(46):18217-22 PMID: 17989237
  125. Intestinal alkaline phosphatase detoxifies lipopolysaccharide and prevents inflammation in zebrafish in response to the gut microbiota.
    Cell Host Microbe. 2007 Dec 13;2(6):371-82 PMID: 18078689
  126. The microbial pan-genome.
    Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2005 Dec;15(6):589-94 PMID: 16185861
  127. Species divergence and the measurement of microbial diversity.
    FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2008 Jul;32(4):557-78 PMID: 18435746
  128. An invitation to the marriage of metagenomics and metabolomics.
    Cell. 2008 Sep 5;134(5):708-13 PMID: 18775300
Article Info
Journal
Gastroenterology
Abbr.
Gastroenterology
ISSN
1528-0012
DOI
10.1053/j.gastro.2009.02.075
Published
2009-05-00
Epub
2009-00-07
Pages
1989-2002
Language
English
Region
United States
NLM ID
0374630
PMCID
PMC4841941
Subset
IM
Grants
NIEHS NIH HHS · P30 ES010126 · United States
NIDDK NIH HHS · P30 DK034987 · United States
NIDDK NIH HHS · DK081426 · United States
NIGMS NIH HHS · T32 GM007092 · United States
NIDDK NIH HHS · K01 DK073695 · United States
NIDDK NIH HHS · DK073695 · United States
NICHD NIH HHS · T32 HD046369 · United States
NIDDK NIH HHS · R01 DK081426 · United States
External Links
PubMed source DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2009.02.075 PMC Full Text View journal details
Analysis Services
Analysis Services

Contact

No. 2 Wenbo Road, Zhangqiu District, Jinan, Shandong

Qilu Normal University · Genelibs Bioinformatics Lab

750 Shunhua Rd, Jinan

2F, Bldg F, University Science Park

Tel: 0531-88819269

WeChat Official Account

Follow our WeChat subscription account for real-time updates and the latest in medical and biological research.


Business Email

E-mail: product@genelibs.com

Copyright © 2026.Genelibs Jinan Honghui Biotechnology Co., Ltd. 鲁ICP备20007159号-2