Home LiteratureArticle Details
PMID: 20192812 Published · ppublish English Journal Article Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Review

Intestinal bacteria and the regulation of immune cell homeostasis.

Annual review of immunology ·Vol. 28 ·2010-00-00 ·Pages 623-67

Hill DA, Artis D

Abstract

The human intestine is colonized by an estimated 100 trillion bacteria. Some of these bacteria are essential for normal physiology, whereas others have been implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple inflammatory diseases including IBD and asthma. This review examines the influence of signals from intestinal bacteria on the homeostasis of the mammalian immune system in the context of health and disease. We review the bacterial composition of the mammalian intestine, known bacterial-derived immunoregulatory molecules, and the mammalian innate immune receptors that recognize them. We discuss the influence of bacterial-derived signals on immune cell function and the mechanisms by which these signals modulate the development and progression of inflammatory disease. We conclude with an examination of successes and future challenges in using bacterial communities or their products in the prevention or treatment of human disease.

MeSH Terms
Animals Homeostasis Humans Immunity, Innate Intestines/immunology,microbiology Receptors, Immunologic/immunology Signal Transduction
Chemicals
Receptors, Immunologic
Authors & Affiliations
2 authors, click to expand affiliations / ORCID
Hill David A
University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathobiology, Philadelphia, 19104-4539, USA.
Artis David
References (393)
393 references, click to expand
  1. Bacterial-reactive T regulatory cells inhibit pathogenic immune responses to the enteric flora.
    J Immunol. 2002 Dec 1;169(11):6112-9 PMID: 12444113
  2. Discovery and biology of IL-23 and IL-27: related but functionally distinct regulators of inflammation.
    Annu Rev Immunol. 2007;25:221-42 PMID: 17291186
  3. Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses.
    Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2006 Aug;9(4):364-70 PMID: 16713732
  4. Commensal bacteria, redox stress, and colorectal cancer: mechanisms and models.
    Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2004 Jul;229(7):586-97 PMID: 15229352
  5. The B-cell system in inflammatory bowel disease.
    Adv Exp Med Biol. 2006;579:149-67 PMID: 16620017
  6. Human epithelial cells trigger dendritic cell mediated allergic inflammation by producing TSLP.
    Nat Immunol. 2002 Jul;3(7):673-80 PMID: 12055625
  7. Regulatory T cell-derived interleukin-10 limits inflammation at environmental interfaces.
    Immunity. 2008 Apr;28(4):546-58 PMID: 18387831
  8. Commensal host-bacterial relationships in the gut.
    Science. 2001 May 11;292(5519):1115-8 PMID: 11352068
  9. Colonic mucosal mast cell distribution at line of demarcation of active ulcerative colitis.
    Dig Dis Sci. 1992 Apr;37(4):490-5 PMID: 1551335
  10. Bugs inside Bugs: what the fruit fly can teach us about immune and microbial balance in the gut.
    Cell Host Microbe. 2008 Mar 13;3(3):117-8 PMID: 18329607
  11. Effect of intestinal microbiota on the induction of regulatory CD25+ CD4+ T cells.
    Clin Exp Immunol. 2008 Jul;153(1):127-35 PMID: 18460018
  12. Measurement of affinity in serum samples of antigen-free, germ-free and conventional mice after hyperimmunization with 2,4-dinitrophenyl keyhole limpet hemocyanin, using surface plasmon resonance.
    Eur J Immunol. 1995 Jun;25(6):1680-6 PMID: 7614996
  13. Gastrointestinal microbiology enters the metagenomics era.
    Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2008 Jan;24(1):4-10 PMID: 18043225
  14. A Crohn's disease-associated NOD2 mutation suppresses transcription of human IL10 by inhibiting activity of the nuclear ribonucleoprotein hnRNP-A1.
    Nat Immunol. 2009 May;10(5):471-9 PMID: 19349988
  15. Mast cells are an important cellular source of tumour necrosis factor alpha in human intestinal tissue.
    Gut. 1999 May;44(5):643-52 PMID: 10205200
  16. Innate and adaptive interleukin-22 protects mice from inflammatory bowel disease.
    Immunity. 2008 Dec 19;29(6):947-57 PMID: 19100701
  17. Protective role of Toll-like receptor 4 during the initiation stage of cutaneous chemical carcinogenesis.
    Cancer Res. 2008 Jan 15;68(2):615-22 PMID: 18199559
  18. Chronic intestinal inflammatory condition generates IL-10-producing regulatory B cell subset characterized by CD1d upregulation.
    Immunity. 2002 Feb;16(2):219-30 PMID: 11869683
  19. Regulation of humoral and cellular gut immunity by lamina propria dendritic cells expressing Toll-like receptor 5.
    Nat Immunol. 2008 Jul;9(7):769-76 PMID: 18516037
  20. Resident enteric bacteria are necessary for development of spontaneous colitis and immune system activation in interleukin-10-deficient mice.
    Infect Immun. 1998 Nov;66(11):5224-31 PMID: 9784526
  21. Synergistic effect of Nod1 and Nod2 agonists with toll-like receptor agonists on human dendritic cells to generate interleukin-12 and T helper type 1 cells.
    Infect Immun. 2005 Dec;73(12):7967-76 PMID: 16299289
  22. TLR-4 regulates CD8+ T cell trapping in the liver.
    J Immunol. 2005 Aug 1;175(3):1643-50 PMID: 16034104
  23. TLR3- and Th2 cytokine-dependent production of thymic stromal lymphopoietin in human airway epithelial cells.
    J Immunol. 2007 Jul 15;179(2):1080-7 PMID: 17617600
  24. Specific microbiota direct the differentiation of IL-17-producing T-helper cells in the mucosa of the small intestine.
    Cell Host Microbe. 2008 Oct 16;4(4):337-49 PMID: 18854238
  25. Nod2-dependent Th2 polarization of antigen-specific immunity.
    J Immunol. 2008 Dec 1;181(11):7925-35 PMID: 19017983
  26. Hyperexpression of NOD2 in intestinal mast cells of Crohn's disease patients: preferential expression of inflammatory cell-recruiting molecules via NOD2 in mast cells.
    Clin Immunol. 2009 Feb;130(2):175-85 PMID: 18938111
  27. Antibiotic use in children is associated with increased risk of asthma.
    Pediatrics. 2009 Mar;123(3):1003-10 PMID: 19255032
  28. TH17 cells in development: an updated view of their molecular identity and genetic programming.
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2008 May;8(5):337-48 PMID: 18408735
  29. The key role of segmented filamentous bacteria in the coordinated maturation of gut helper T cell responses.
    Immunity. 2009 Oct 16;31(4):677-89 PMID: 19833089
  30. IL-23 plays a key role in Helicobacter hepaticus-induced T cell-dependent colitis.
    J Exp Med. 2006 Oct 30;203(11):2485-94 PMID: 17030948
  31. Interactions between commensal intestinal bacteria and the immune system.
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2004 Jun;4(6):478-85 PMID: 15173836
  32. Metagenomic analyses reveal antibiotic-induced temporal and spatial changes in intestinal microbiota with associated alterations in immune cell homeostasis.
    Mucosal Immunol. 2010 Mar;3(2):148-58 PMID: 19940845
  33. Development of TLR9 agonists for cancer therapy.
    J Clin Invest. 2007 May;117(5):1184-94 PMID: 17476348
  34. Mucin degradation in human colon ecosystems. Isolation and properties of fecal strains that degrade ABH blood group antigens and oligosaccharides from mucin glycoproteins.
    J Clin Invest. 1985 Mar;75(3):944-53 PMID: 3920248
  35. Recognition and signaling by toll-like receptors.
    Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2006;22:409-37 PMID: 16822173
  36. Interleukin-12 and the regulation of innate resistance and adaptive immunity.
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2003 Feb;3(2):133-46 PMID: 12563297
  37. A distinct subset of intestinal dendritic cells responds selectively to oral TLR7/8 stimulation.
    Eur J Immunol. 2006 Oct;36(10):2639-48 PMID: 16983724
  38. THE RESPONSE OF THE LYMPHATIC TISSUE TO BACTERIAL ANTIGEN. STUDIES IN GERMFREE MICE.
    Am J Pathol. 1964 May;44:747-61 PMID: 14155023
  39. Muramyldipeptide and diaminopimelic acid-containing desmuramylpeptides in combination with chemically synthesized Toll-like receptor agonists synergistically induced production of interleukin-8 in a NOD2- and NOD1-dependent manner, respectively, in human monocytic cells in culture.
    Cell Microbiol. 2005 Jan;7(1):53-61 PMID: 15617523
  40. Development of allergic airway disease in mice following antibiotic therapy and fungal microbiota increase: role of host genetics, antigen, and interleukin-13.
    Infect Immun. 2005 Jan;73(1):30-8 PMID: 15618138
  41. Generation of gut-homing IgA-secreting B cells by intestinal dendritic cells.
    Science. 2006 Nov 17;314(5802):1157-60 PMID: 17110582
  42. Nod-like proteins in inflammation and disease.
    J Pathol. 2008 Jan;214(2):136-48 PMID: 18161746
  43. Starting at the beginning: new perspectives on the biology of mucosal T cells.
    Annu Rev Immunol. 2004;22:217-46 PMID: 15032579
  44. Differentiation and self-renewal in the mouse gastrointestinal epithelium.
    Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1994 Dec;6(6):795-803 PMID: 7880525
  45. Immunoglobulin A (IgA): molecular and cellular interactions involved in IgA biosynthesis and immune response.
    Adv Immunol. 1987;40:153-245 PMID: 3296685
  46. Induction of protective IgA by intestinal dendritic cells carrying commensal bacteria.
    Science. 2004 Mar 12;303(5664):1662-5 PMID: 15016999
  47. Impaired regulatory T cell function in germ-free mice.
    Eur J Immunol. 2006 Sep;36(9):2336-46 PMID: 16897813
  48. Effects of microbial contamination on the cecum enlargement of germfree rats.
    Scand J Gastroenterol. 1970;5(4):309-14 PMID: 5429896
  49. Effect of the gastrointestinal microflora on induction and maintenance of oral tolerance to ovalbumin in C3H/HeJ mice.
    Infect Immun. 1988 Oct;56(10):2766-8 PMID: 3417356
  50. Only fibres promoting a stable butyrate producing colonic ecosystem decrease the rate of aberrant crypt foci in rats.
    Gut. 2001 Jan;48(1):53-61 PMID: 11115823
  51. Perspectives in asthma: molecular use of microbial products in asthma prevention and treatment.
    J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005 Dec;116(6):1202-5 PMID: 16337446
  52. The role of the intestinal microbiota in the development of atopic disorders.
    Allergy. 2007 Nov;62(11):1223-36 PMID: 17711557
  53. Expression and function of Toll-like receptor on T cells.
    Cell Immunol. 2005 Feb;233(2):85-9 PMID: 15950961
  54. Toll-like receptor-2 expression is upregulated in antigen-presenting cells from patients with psoriatic arthritis: a pathogenic role for innate immunity?
    J Rheumatol. 2007 Feb;34(2):374-9 PMID: 17183618
  55. Diversity of the Lactobacillus group in breast milk and vagina of healthy women and potential role in the colonization of the infant gut.
    J Appl Microbiol. 2007 Dec;103(6):2638-44 PMID: 18045446
  56. Community-wide response of the gut microbiota to enteropathogenic Citrobacter rodentium infection revealed by deep sequencing.
    Infect Immun. 2009 Oct;77(10):4668-78 PMID: 19635824
  57. Unique CD14 intestinal macrophages contribute to the pathogenesis of Crohn disease via IL-23/IFN-gamma axis.
    J Clin Invest. 2008 Jun;118(6):2269-80 PMID: 18497880
  58. Single Lgr5 stem cells build crypt-villus structures in vitro without a mesenchymal niche.
    Nature. 2009 May 14;459(7244):262-5 PMID: 19329995
  59. Detection of pathogenic intestinal bacteria by Toll-like receptor 5 on intestinal CD11c+ lamina propria cells.
    Nat Immunol. 2006 Aug;7(8):868-74 PMID: 16829963
  60. Toll-like receptor 2 and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-2 play divergent roles in the recognition of gut-derived lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in dendritic cells.
    Immunology. 2008 Aug;124(4):489-502 PMID: 18217947
  61. Expansion of alpha beta T-cell receptor-bearing intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes after microbial colonization in germ-free mice and its independence from thymus.
    Immunology. 1993 May;79(1):32-7 PMID: 8509140
  62. Communicable ulcerative colitis induced by T-bet deficiency in the innate immune system.
    Cell. 2007 Oct 5;131(1):33-45 PMID: 17923086
  63. Differential activity of IL-12 and IL-23 in mucosal and systemic innate immune pathology.
    Immunity. 2006 Aug;25(2):309-18 PMID: 16919486
  64. Colonization of gnotobiotic mice with human gut microflora at birth protects against Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin-mediated abrogation of oral tolerance.
    Pediatr Res. 2003 Nov;54(5):739-46 PMID: 12904595
  65. Intestinal dendritic cell subsets: differential effects of systemic TLR4 stimulation on migratory fate and activation in vivo.
    J Immunol. 2005 Feb 1;174(3):1374-84 PMID: 15661895
  66. IL-23 is essential for T cell-mediated colitis and promotes inflammation via IL-17 and IL-6.
    J Clin Invest. 2006 May;116(5):1310-6 PMID: 16670770
  67. Isolation and characterization of a mucin-degrading strain of Peptostreptococcus from rat intestinal tract.
    Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand B. 1986 Oct;94(5):293-300 PMID: 3788570
  68. Immunobiology and immunopathology of human gut mucosa: humoral immunity and intraepithelial lymphocytes.
    Gastroenterology. 1989 Dec;97(6):1562-84 PMID: 2684725
  69. Differential roles of segmented filamentous bacteria and clostridia in development of the intestinal immune system.
    Infect Immun. 1999 Jul;67(7):3504-11 PMID: 10377132
  70. IL-23 stimulates epidermal hyperplasia via TNF and IL-20R2-dependent mechanisms with implications for psoriasis pathogenesis.
    J Exp Med. 2006 Nov 27;203(12):2577-87 PMID: 17074928
  71. Lactic acid bacterial colonization and human rotavirus infection influence distribution and frequencies of monocytes/macrophages and dendritic cells in neonatal gnotobiotic pigs.
    Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2008 Feb 15;121(3-4):222-31 PMID: 18006076
  72. Flagellin treatment protects against chemicals, bacteria, viruses, and radiation.
    J Immunol. 2008 Jun 15;180(12):8280-5 PMID: 18523294
  73. Lactobacillus species prevents colitis in interleukin 10 gene-deficient mice.
    Gastroenterology. 1999 May;116(5):1107-14 PMID: 10220502
  74. A frameshift mutation in NOD2 associated with susceptibility to Crohn's disease.
    Nature. 2001 May 31;411(6837):603-6 PMID: 11385577
  75. Sulfate bile acids in germ-free and conventional mice.
    Eur J Biochem. 1976 Jul 15;66(3):507-14 PMID: 954753
  76. Natural IgE production in the absence of MHC Class II cognate help.
    Immunity. 2006 Mar;24(3):329-39 PMID: 16546101
  77. Comparison of the fecal microflora in rural Japanese and urban Canadians.
    Microbiol Immunol. 1986;30(6):521-32 PMID: 3747865
  78. Differential cell kinetics in the ileum and colon of germfree rats.
    Scand J Gastroenterol. 1994 May;29(5):445-51 PMID: 8036460
  79. The adenosine A2A receptor agonist CGS 21680 fails to ameliorate the course of dextran sulphate-induced colitis in mice.
    Inflamm Res. 2007 May;56(5):204-9 PMID: 17588136
  80. Factors affecting the lymphoid cells in the small intestinal epithelium of the mouse.
    Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol. 1973;45(5):719-30 PMID: 4749414
  81. Quantification of Bifidobacterium spp., Escherichia coli and Clostridium difficile in faecal samples of breast-fed and formula-fed infants by real-time PCR.
    FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2005 Feb 1;243(1):141-7 PMID: 15668012
  82. High-dose probiotics for the treatment of active pouchitis.
    Dis Colon Rectum. 2007 Dec;50(12):2075-82; discussion 2082-4 PMID: 17934776
  83. Basophils beyond effector cells of allergic inflammation.
    Adv Immunol. 2009;101:123-61 PMID: 19231594
  84. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Nov 2;101(44):15718-23 PMID: 15505215
  85. Impaired B cell responses to orally administered antigens in lamina propria but not Peyer's patches of Galphai2-deficient mice prior to colitis.
    Immunology. 2005 Jun;115(2):271-8 PMID: 15885134
  86. Lymphoid tissue genesis induced by commensals through NOD1 regulates intestinal homeostasis.
    Nature. 2008 Nov 27;456(7221):507-10 PMID: 18987631
  87. Epithelial NEMO links innate immunity to chronic intestinal inflammation.
    Nature. 2007 Mar 29;446(7135):557-61 PMID: 17361131
  88. A comparative study on the humoral immune responses in germ-free and conventional mice.
    Immunology. 1977 Jan;32(1):43-8 PMID: 321340
  89. CCR6-mediated dendritic cell activation of pathogen-specific T cells in Peyer's patches.
    Immunity. 2006 May;24(5):623-32 PMID: 16713979
  90. IL-12, but not IFN-gamma, plays a major role in sustaining the chronic phase of colitis in IL-10-deficient mice.
    J Immunol. 1998 Sep 15;161(6):3143-9 PMID: 9743382
  91. Innate immune defenses in the intestinal tract.
    Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2007 Mar;23(2):115-20 PMID: 17268238
  92. Effect of some biologically active amines on the cecum wall of germfree rats.
    Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1966 Mar;121(3):699-702 PMID: 5935571
  93. Modulation of human dendritic cell phenotype and function by probiotic bacteria.
    Gut. 2004 Nov;53(11):1602-9 PMID: 15479680
  94. MyD88-dependent signaling for IL-15 production plays an important role in maintenance of CD8 alpha alpha TCR alpha beta and TCR gamma delta intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes.
    J Immunol. 2006 May 15;176(10):6180-5 PMID: 16670327
  95. Direct analysis of genes encoding 16S rRNA from complex communities reveals many novel molecular species within the human gut.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 1999 Nov;65(11):4799-807 PMID: 10543789
  96. Mechanisms of action of probiotics: recent advances.
    Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2009 Feb;15(2):300-10 PMID: 18626975
  97. Various human epithelial cells express functional Toll-like receptors, NOD1 and NOD2 to produce anti-microbial peptides, but not proinflammatory cytokines.
    Mol Immunol. 2007 May;44(12):3100-11 PMID: 17403538
  98. Development of the human infant intestinal microbiota.
    PLoS Biol. 2007 Jul;5(7):e177 PMID: 17594176
  99. MUCUS IN INTESTINAL CONTENTS OF GERMFREE RATS.
    J Exp Med. 1965 Feb 1;121:201-13 PMID: 14264267
  100. Development of gut colonisation in pre-term neonates.
    J Med Microbiol. 1982 Nov;15(4):519-29 PMID: 6816935
  101. Epithelial-cell recognition of commensal bacteria and maintenance of immune homeostasis in the gut.
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2008 Jun;8(6):411-20 PMID: 18469830
  102. Apoptosis cascade proteins are regulated in vivo by high intracolonic butyrate concentration: correlation with colon cancer inhibition.
    Oncol Res. 2000;12(2):83-95 PMID: 11132927
  103. Archaea and their potential role in human disease.
    Infect Immun. 2003 Feb;71(2):591-6 PMID: 12540534
  104. T15 dominance in BALB/c mice is not controlled by environmental factors.
    J Immunol. 1986 Mar 15;136(6):1988-91 PMID: 3485136
  105. Regulatory B cells as inhibitors of immune responses and inflammation.
    Immunol Rev. 2008 Aug;224:201-14 PMID: 18759928
  106. Analysis of intestinal flora development in breast-fed and formula-fed infants by using molecular identification and detection methods.
    J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000 Jan;30(1):61-7 PMID: 10630441
  107. Influence of intestinal bacteria on induction of regulatory T cells: lessons from a transfer model of colitis.
    Gut. 2005 Nov;54(11):1546-52 PMID: 15987795
  108. Reduced Paneth cell alpha-defensins in ileal Crohn's disease.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Dec 13;102(50):18129-34 PMID: 16330776
  109. Colorectal carcinogenesis in germ-free and conventionally reared rats: different intestinal environments affect the systemic immunity.
    Int J Oncol. 2008 Mar;32(3):609-17 PMID: 18292938
  110. Fecal microbial diversity in a strict vegetarian as determined by molecular analysis and cultivation.
    Microbiol Immunol. 2002;46(12):819-31 PMID: 12597356
  111. Cancer relapse under chemotherapy: why TLR2/4 receptor agonists can help.
    Eur J Pharmacol. 2007 Jun 1;563(1-3):1-17 PMID: 17383632
  112. Maintaining diplomatic relations between mammals and beneficial microbial communities.
    Sci Signal. 2009 Nov 24;2(98):pe77 PMID: 19934432
  113. T cell-produced transforming growth factor-beta1 controls T cell tolerance and regulates Th1- and Th17-cell differentiation.
    Immunity. 2007 May;26(5):579-91 PMID: 17481928
  114. Cytokine modulation of intestinal epithelial cell restitution: central role of transforming growth factor beta.
    Gastroenterology. 1993 Nov;105(5):1323-32 PMID: 8224636
  115. S layer protein A of Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM regulates immature dendritic cell and T cell functions.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Dec 9;105(49):19474-9 PMID: 19047644
  116. Interactions between commensal bacteria and the gut-associated immune system of the chicken.
    Anim Health Res Rev. 2008 Jun;9(1):101-10 PMID: 18541076
  117. Epithelial cells trigger frontline immunoglobulin class switching through a pathway regulated by the inhibitor SLPI.
    Nat Immunol. 2007 Mar;8(3):294-303 PMID: 17259987
  118. Muramyl dipeptide activation of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 2 protects mice from experimental colitis.
    J Clin Invest. 2008 Feb;118(2):545-59 PMID: 18188453
  119. Systemic control of plasmacytoid dendritic cells by CD8+ T cells and commensal microbiota.
    J Immunol. 2008 May 1;180(9):5843-52 PMID: 18424703
  120. Suppressive role of B cells in chronic colitis of T cell receptor alpha mutant mice.
    J Exp Med. 1997 Nov 17;186(10):1749-56 PMID: 9362534
  121. Responses of single germinal-center B cells in T-cell-dependent microculture.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Jan 1;88(1):11-5 PMID: 1824722
  122. Toll-like receptors and cancer.
    Nat Rev Cancer. 2009 Jan;9(1):57-63 PMID: 19052556
  123. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-2 modulates specific TLR pathways for the induction of cytokine release.
    J Immunol. 2005 May 15;174(10):6518-23 PMID: 15879155
  124. How host-microbial interactions shape the nutrient environment of the mammalian intestine.
    Annu Rev Nutr. 2002;22:283-307 PMID: 12055347
  125. Compartmentalization of the mucosal immune responses to commensal intestinal bacteria.
    Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Dec;1029:36-43 PMID: 15681741
  126. Interplay between the TH17 and TReg cell lineages: a (co-)evolutionary perspective.
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2009 Dec;9(12):883-9 PMID: 19935807
  127. Microbial colonization induces oligoclonal expansions of intraepithelial CD8 T cells in the gut.
    Eur J Immunol. 2004 Dec;34(12):3389-400 PMID: 15517613
  128. The role of Toll-like receptors and Nod proteins in bacterial infection.
    Mol Immunol. 2004 Nov;41(11):1099-108 PMID: 15476921
  129. Commensal-dependent expression of IL-25 regulates the IL-23-IL-17 axis in the intestine.
    J Exp Med. 2008 Sep 29;205(10):2191-8 PMID: 18762568
  130. IgG antibodies against common gut bacteria are more diagnostic for Crohn's disease than IgG against mannan or flagellin.
    Am J Gastroenterol. 2008 Feb;103(2):386-96 PMID: 17924999
  131. Use of axenic animals in studying the adaptation of mammals to their commensal intestinal microbiota.
    Semin Immunol. 2007 Apr;19(2):59-69 PMID: 17118672
  132. Dynamic imaging of dendritic cell extension into the small bowel lumen in response to epithelial cell TLR engagement.
    J Exp Med. 2006 Dec 25;203(13):2841-52 PMID: 17145958
  133. Non-pathogenic Escherichia coli versus mesalazine for the treatment of ulcerative colitis: a randomised trial.
    Lancet. 1999 Aug 21;354(9179):635-9 PMID: 10466665
  134. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides can reverse Th2-associated allergic airway responses and alter the B7.1/B7.2 expression in a murine model of asthma.
    J Immunol. 2000 Nov 15;165(10):5906-12 PMID: 11067952
  135. Novel p19 protein engages IL-12p40 to form a cytokine, IL-23, with biological activities similar as well as distinct from IL-12.
    Immunity. 2000 Nov;13(5):715-25 PMID: 11114383
  136. Isotypes and specificities of immunoglobulins produced by germ-free mice fed chemically defined ultrafiltered "antigen-free" diet.
    Eur J Immunol. 1984 Dec;14(12):1127-30 PMID: 6083871
  137. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin in normal and pathogenic T cell development and function.
    Nat Immunol. 2006 Jul;7(7):709-14 PMID: 16785889
  138. The TLR2-MyD88-NOD2-RIPK2 signalling axis regulates a balanced pro-inflammatory and IL-10-mediated anti-inflammatory cytokine response to Gram-positive cell walls.
    Cell Microbiol. 2008 Oct;10(10):2067-77 PMID: 18549453
  139. Freshly isolated Peyer's patch, but not spleen, dendritic cells produce interleukin 10 and induce the differentiation of T helper type 2 cells.
    J Exp Med. 1999 Jul 19;190(2):229-39 PMID: 10432286
  140. Small intestine lamina propria dendritic cells promote de novo generation of Foxp3 T reg cells via retinoic acid.
    J Exp Med. 2007 Aug 6;204(8):1775-85 PMID: 17620362
  141. Gamma globulin production in germfree rats after bacterial contamination.
    J Exp Med. 1959 Nov 1;110:675-84 PMID: 13830427
  142. Characteristics of intestinal dendritic cells in inflammatory bowel diseases.
    Gastroenterology. 2005 Jul;129(1):50-65 PMID: 16012934
  143. Macrophages in the small intestinal muscularis externa of embryos, newborn and adult germ-free mice.
    J Mol Histol. 2004 May;35(4):377-87 PMID: 15503811
  144. CX3CR1-mediated dendritic cell access to the intestinal lumen and bacterial clearance.
    Science. 2005 Jan 14;307(5707):254-8 PMID: 15653504
  145. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin is released by human epithelial cells in response to microbes, trauma, or inflammation and potently activates mast cells.
    J Exp Med. 2007 Feb 19;204(2):253-8 PMID: 17242164
  146. Isolation of naturally associated bacteria of necromenic Pristionchus nematodes and fitness consequences.
    J Exp Biol. 2008 Jun;211(Pt 12):1927-36 PMID: 18515723
  147. Small intestinal CD103+ dendritic cells display unique functional properties that are conserved between mice and humans.
    J Exp Med. 2008 Sep 1;205(9):2139-49 PMID: 18710932
  148. Role of the glycocalyx in regulating access of microparticles to apical plasma membranes of intestinal epithelial cells: implications for microbial attachment and oral vaccine targeting.
    J Exp Med. 1996 Sep 1;184(3):1045-59 PMID: 9064322
  149. Mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils acquire constitutive IL-4 and IL-13 transcripts during lineage differentiation that are sufficient for rapid cytokine production.
    J Immunol. 2005 Jan 15;174(2):1063-72 PMID: 15634931
  150. Butyrate inhibits inflammatory responses through NFkappaB inhibition: implications for Crohn's disease.
    Gut. 2000 Sep;47(3):397-403 PMID: 10940278
  151. Mucosal dendritic cells.
    Annu Rev Immunol. 2007;25:381-418 PMID: 17378762
  152. Treatment of murine colitis by Lactococcus lactis secreting interleukin-10.
    Science. 2000 Aug 25;289(5483):1352-5 PMID: 10958782
  153. Role of nod2 in the response of macrophages to toll-like receptor agonists.
    Mol Cell Biol. 2003 Nov;23(21):7531-9 PMID: 14560001
  154. Antibiotic use during infancy promotes a shift in the T(H)1/T(H)2 balance toward T(H)2-dominant immunity in mice.
    J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001 Jan;107(1):153-9 PMID: 11150005
  155. Regulation of RELM/FIZZ isoform expression by Cdx2 in response to innate and adaptive immune stimulation in the intestine.
    Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2005 May;288(5):G1074-83 PMID: 15576623
  156. BACTERICIDAL ANTIBODY TO ESCHERICHIA COLI IN GERM-FREE MICE.
    Nature. 1964 May 30;202:879-81 PMID: 14190078
  157. Intestinal microflora stimulates myoelectric activity of rat small intestine by promoting cyclic initiation and aboral propagation of migrating myoelectric complex.
    Dig Dis Sci. 1994 May;39(5):946-56 PMID: 8174436
  158. Toll-like receptor 4 is required for optimal development of Th2 immune responses: role of dendritic cells.
    J Immunol. 2002 May 1;168(9):4524-30 PMID: 11970998
  159. Influences of microbiota on intestinal immune system development.
    Am J Clin Nutr. 1999 May;69(5):1046S-1051S PMID: 10232647
  160. A primitive T cell-independent mechanism of intestinal mucosal IgA responses to commensal bacteria.
    Science. 2000 Jun 23;288(5474):2222-6 PMID: 10864873
  161. Intestinal immune homeostasis is regulated by the crosstalk between epithelial cells and dendritic cells.
    Nat Immunol. 2005 May;6(5):507-14 PMID: 15821737
  162. Regulatory T cells in the control of host-microorganism interactions (*).
    Annu Rev Immunol. 2009;27:551-89 PMID: 19302048
  163. Apoptosis in colorectal tumour cells: induction by the short chain fatty acids butyrate, propionate and acetate and by the bile salt deoxycholate.
    Int J Cancer. 1995 Jan 27;60(3):400-6 PMID: 7829251
  164. Association of NOD2 leucine-rich repeat variants with susceptibility to Crohn's disease.
    Nature. 2001 May 31;411(6837):599-603 PMID: 11385576
  165. How do DCs interact with intestinal antigens?
    Trends Immunol. 2005 Jul;26(7):349-52 PMID: 15978521
  166. Tolerance exists towards resident intestinal flora but is broken in active inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
    Clin Exp Immunol. 1995 Dec;102(3):448-55 PMID: 8536356
  167. TSLP regulates intestinal immunity and inflammation in mouse models of helminth infection and colitis.
    J Exp Med. 2009 Mar 16;206(3):655-67 PMID: 19273626
  168. Dendritic cells in intestinal immune regulation.
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2008 Jun;8(6):435-46 PMID: 18500229
  169. Maternal adaptive immunity influences the intestinal microflora of suckling mice.
    J Nutr. 2004 Sep;134(9):2359-64 PMID: 15333729
  170. Basophils contribute to T(H)2-IgE responses in vivo via IL-4 production and presentation of peptide-MHC class II complexes to CD4+ T cells.
    Nat Immunol. 2009 Jul;10(7):706-12 PMID: 19465908
  171. Development and differences of intestinal flora in the neonatal period in breast-fed and bottle-fed infants.
    Pediatrics. 1983 Sep;72(3):317-21 PMID: 6412205
  172. Effects of microflora on the neonatal development of gut mucosal T cells and myeloid cells in the mouse.
    Immunology. 2006 Dec;119(4):470-8 PMID: 16995882
  173. Disruption of a new forkhead/winged-helix protein, scurfin, results in the fatal lymphoproliferative disorder of the scurfy mouse.
    Nat Genet. 2001 Jan;27(1):68-73 PMID: 11138001
  174. The bacterial fermentation product butyrate influences epithelial signaling via reactive oxygen species-mediated changes in cullin-1 neddylation.
    J Immunol. 2009 Jan 1;182(1):538-46 PMID: 19109186
  175. Divergent pro- and antiinflammatory roles for IL-23 and IL-12 in joint autoimmune inflammation.
    J Exp Med. 2003 Dec 15;198(12):1951-7 PMID: 14662908
  176. Interleukin-23 drives innate and T cell-mediated intestinal inflammation.
    J Exp Med. 2006 Oct 30;203(11):2473-83 PMID: 17030949
  177. Functional diversity of helper T lymphocytes.
    Nature. 1996 Oct 31;383(6603):787-93 PMID: 8893001
  178. The macaque gut microbiome in health, lentiviral infection, and chronic enterocolitis.
    PLoS Pathog. 2008 Feb 8;4(2):e20 PMID: 18248093
  179. Effect of the normal microbial flora on various tissue elements of the small intestine.
    Acta Anat (Basel). 1961;44:210-25 PMID: 13707166
  180. The composition of the faecal microflora in breastfed and bottle fed infants from birth to eight weeks.
    Acta Paediatr Scand. 1985 Jan;74(1):45-51 PMID: 3984727
  181. Local increase in thymic stromal lymphopoietin induces systemic alterations in B cell development.
    Nat Immunol. 2007 May;8(5):522-31 PMID: 17401368
  182. Assessment of microbial diversity in human colonic samples by 16S rDNA sequence analysis.
    FEMS Microbiol Ecol. 2002 Jan 1;39(1):33-9 PMID: 19709182
  183. Cutting edge: IL-23 cross-regulates IL-12 production in T cell-dependent experimental colitis.
    J Immunol. 2006 Sep 1;177(5):2760-4 PMID: 16920909
  184. Influence of the transcription factor RORgammat on the development of NKp46+ cell populations in gut and skin.
    Nat Immunol. 2009 Jan;10(1):75-82 PMID: 19029904
  185. Interleukin-22-producing natural killer cells and lymphoid tissue inducer-like cells in mucosal immunity.
    Immunity. 2009 Jul 17;31(1):15-23 PMID: 19604490
  186. Developmental regulation of intestinal angiogenesis by indigenous microbes via Paneth cells.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Nov 26;99(24):15451-5 PMID: 12432102
  187. Mucosal antibodies in inflammatory bowel disease are directed against intestinal bacteria.
    Gut. 1996 Mar;38(3):365-75 PMID: 8675088
  188. IMMUNOGLOBULINS OF THE GERMFREE GUINEA PIG.
    J Immunol. 1964 Jul;93:122-31 PMID: 14214375
  189. Interleukin-22-producing innate immune cells: new players in mucosal immunity and tissue repair?
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2009 Apr;9(4):229-34 PMID: 19319141
  190. T cell-mediated pathology in two models of experimental colitis depends predominantly on the interleukin 12/Signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat)-4 pathway, but is not conditional on interferon gamma expression by T cells.
    J Exp Med. 1998 Apr 20;187(8):1225-34 PMID: 9547334
  191. IL-2 mediates protection against abscess formation in an experimental model of sepsis.
    J Immunol. 1999 Jul 15;163(2):893-7 PMID: 10395684
  192. Cutting Edge: Proinflammatory and Th2 cytokines synergize to induce thymic stromal lymphopoietin production by human skin keratinocytes.
    J Immunol. 2007 Mar 15;178(6):3373-7 PMID: 17339431
  193. BACTERIA INDUCED MORPHOLOGIC CHANGES.
    Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1964 Jul;116:628-31 PMID: 14194615
  194. Innate and adaptive immunity cooperate flexibly to maintain host-microbiota mutualism.
    Science. 2009 Jul 31;325(5940):617-20 PMID: 19644121
  195. Expression of the T-cell chemoattractant chemokine lymphotactin in Crohn's disease.
    Am J Pathol. 2001 Nov;159(5):1751-61 PMID: 11696436
  196. Myd88-dependent positioning of Ptgs2-expressing stromal cells maintains colonic epithelial proliferation during injury.
    J Clin Invest. 2007 Jan;117(1):258-69 PMID: 17200722
  197. Epithelial cells prime the immune response to an array of gut-derived commensals towards a tolerogenic phenotype through distinct actions of thymic stromal lymphopoietin and transforming growth factor-beta.
    Immunology. 2008 Feb;123(2):197-208 PMID: 17655740
  198. Establishment of the gut microbiota in Western infants.
    Acta Paediatr. 2009 Feb;98(2):229-38 PMID: 19143664
  199. Intestinal epithelial cells promote colitis-protective regulatory T-cell differentiation through dendritic cell conditioning.
    Mucosal Immunol. 2009 Jul;2(4):340-50 PMID: 19387433
  200. T cell receptor-alpha beta-deficient mice fail to develop colitis in the absence of a microbial environment.
    Am J Pathol. 1997 Jan;150(1):91-7 PMID: 9006326
  201. Selective generation of gut-tropic T cells in gut-associated lymphoid tissues: requirement for GALT dendritic cells and adjuvant.
    Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Dec;1029:405-7 PMID: 15681793
  202. Prevention of TNBS-induced colitis by different Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains is associated with an expansion of gammadeltaT and regulatory T cells of intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes.
    Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2009 Oct;15(10):1526-36 PMID: 19504616
  203. An oral introduction of intestinal bacteria prevents the development of a long-term Th2-skewed immunological memory induced by neonatal antibiotic treatment in mice.
    Clin Exp Allergy. 2002 Jul;32(7):1112-6 PMID: 12100062
  204. Hyporesponsiveness of intestinal dendritic cells to TLR stimulation is limited to TLR4.
    J Immunol. 2009 Feb 15;182(4):2405-15 PMID: 19201895
  205. Chemokine CXCL13 is essential for lymph node initiation and is induced by retinoic acid and neuronal stimulation.
    Nat Immunol. 2009 Nov;10(11):1193-9 PMID: 19783990
  206. A discrete subpopulation of dendritic cells transports apoptotic intestinal epithelial cells to T cell areas of mesenteric lymph nodes.
    J Exp Med. 2000 Feb 7;191(3):435-44 PMID: 10662789
  207. Tight mucosal compartmentation of the murine immune response to antigens of the enteric microbiota.
    Gastroenterology. 2006 Jun;130(7):2050-9 PMID: 16762628
  208. Gut flora allows recovery of oral tolerance to ovalbumin in mice after transient breakdown mediated by cholera toxin or Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin.
    Pediatr Res. 1996 Apr;39(4 Pt 1):625-9 PMID: 8848336
  209. Nucleotide binding oligomerization domain 2 deficiency leads to dysregulated TLR2 signaling and induction of antigen-specific colitis.
    Immunity. 2006 Sep;25(3):473-85 PMID: 16949315
  210. Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine.
    Science. 2005 Mar 25;307(5717):1915-20 PMID: 15790844
  211. Reduced diversity of faecal microbiota in Crohn's disease revealed by a metagenomic approach.
    Gut. 2006 Feb;55(2):205-11 PMID: 16188921
  212. Microbial translocation augments the function of adoptively transferred self/tumor-specific CD8+ T cells via TLR4 signaling.
    J Clin Invest. 2007 Aug;117(8):2197-204 PMID: 17657310
  213. Molecular characterization of the microbial species that colonize human ileal and colonic mucosa by using 16S rDNA sequence analysis.
    J Appl Microbiol. 2003;95(3):508-20 PMID: 12911699
  214. INDIGENOUS, NORMAL, AND AUTOCHTHONOUS FLORA OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT.
    J Exp Med. 1965 Jul 1;122:67-76 PMID: 14325474
  215. Commensal gut flora drives the expansion of proinflammatory CD4 T cells in the colonic lamina propria under normal and inflammatory conditions.
    J Immunol. 2008 Jan 1;180(1):559-68 PMID: 18097058
  216. Innate immune homeostasis by the homeobox gene caudal and commensal-gut mutualism in Drosophila.
    Science. 2008 Feb 8;319(5864):777-82 PMID: 18218863
  217. Cell biology of antigen processing in vitro and in vivo.
    Annu Rev Immunol. 2005;23:975-1028 PMID: 15771591
  218. Localization of distinct Peyer's patch dendritic cell subsets and their recruitment by chemokines macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-3alpha, MIP-3beta, and secondary lymphoid organ chemokine.
    J Exp Med. 2000 Apr 17;191(8):1381-94 PMID: 10770804
  219. Immune development in jejunal mucosa after colonization with selected commensal gut bacteria: a study in germ-free pigs.
    Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2007 Oct 15;119(3-4):243-53 PMID: 17643495
  220. Chronic stimulation of Nod2 mediates tolerance to bacterial products.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Dec 4;104(49):19440-5 PMID: 18032608
  221. Epithelial-cell-intrinsic IKK-beta expression regulates intestinal immune homeostasis.
    Nature. 2007 Mar 29;446(7135):552-6 PMID: 17322906
  222. Phylogenetic analysis of the human gut microbiota using 16S rDNA clone libraries and strictly anaerobic culture-based methods.
    Microbiol Immunol. 2002;46(8):535-48 PMID: 12363017
  223. Early intestinal Bacteroides fragilis colonisation and development of asthma.
    BMC Pulm Med. 2008 Sep 26;8:19 PMID: 18822123
  224. Bacterial flagellin is a dominant antigen in Crohn disease.
    J Clin Invest. 2004 May;113(9):1296-306 PMID: 15124021
  225. Immunohistochemical observations on lymphoid tissues from conventional and germ-free mice.
    Lab Invest. 1970 May;22(5):448-57 PMID: 4911977
  226. Dendritic cells express tight junction proteins and penetrate gut epithelial monolayers to sample bacteria.
    Nat Immunol. 2001 Apr;2(4):361-7 PMID: 11276208
  227. Interleukin 16 expression and phenotype of interleukin 16 producing cells in Crohn's disease.
    Gut. 2001 Dec;49(6):795-803 PMID: 11709514
  228. TSLP-activated dendritic cells induce an inflammatory T helper type 2 cell response through OX40 ligand.
    J Exp Med. 2005 Nov 7;202(9):1213-23 PMID: 16275760
  229. Uptake and presentation of antigen to T cells by primary colonic epithelial cells in normal and diseased states.
    Gastroenterology. 2000 Dec;119(6):1548-59 PMID: 11113076
  230. Engineering of a human vaginal Lactobacillus strain for surface expression of two-domain CD4 molecules.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008 Aug;74(15):4626-35 PMID: 18539799
  231. Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiota and chemoattractant receptor GPR43.
    Nature. 2009 Oct 29;461(7268):1282-6 PMID: 19865172
  232. IL-23 production by cosecretion of endogenous p19 and transgenic p40 in keratin 14/p40 transgenic mice: evidence for enhanced cutaneous immunity.
    J Immunol. 2003 Jun 1;170(11):5438-44 PMID: 12759419
  233. Decreased expression of Toll-like receptor-4 and MD-2 correlates with intestinal epithelial cell protection against dysregulated proinflammatory gene expression in response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide.
    J Immunol. 2001 Aug 1;167(3):1609-16 PMID: 11466383
  234. Microbial pattern recognition receptors mediate M-cell uptake of a gram-negative bacterium.
    Infect Immun. 2006 Jan;74(1):625-31 PMID: 16369019
  235. Humoral immune responses in CD40 ligand-deficient mice.
    J Exp Med. 1994 Nov 1;180(5):1889-900 PMID: 7964465
  236. Molecular analysis of fecal microbiota in elderly individuals using 16S rDNA library and T-RFLP.
    Microbiol Immunol. 2003;47(8):557-70 PMID: 14524616
  237. Bifidobacteria in the intestinal tract of infants: an in-vivo study.
    J Med Microbiol. 1976 Aug;9(3):325-33 PMID: 8646
  238. CARD15/NOD2 functions as an antibacterial factor in human intestinal epithelial cells.
    Gastroenterology. 2003 Apr;124(4):993-1000 PMID: 12671896
  239. Triggering the succinate receptor GPR91 on dendritic cells enhances immunity.
    Nat Immunol. 2008 Nov;9(11):1261-9 PMID: 18820681
  240. Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum is associated with atopic eczema: a nested case-control study investigating the fecal microbiota of infants.
    J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008 Jan;121(1):135-40 PMID: 17900682
  241. A microbial symbiosis factor prevents intestinal inflammatory disease.
    Nature. 2008 May 29;453(7195):620-5 PMID: 18509436
  242. Selective imprinting of gut-homing T cells by Peyer's patch dendritic cells.
    Nature. 2003 Jul 3;424(6944):88-93 PMID: 12840763
  243. Immune regulation in the intestine: a balancing act between effector and regulatory T cell responses.
    Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Dec;1029:132-41 PMID: 15681752
  244. GPR109A is a G-protein-coupled receptor for the bacterial fermentation product butyrate and functions as a tumor suppressor in colon.
    Cancer Res. 2009 Apr 1;69(7):2826-32 PMID: 19276343
  245. Role of epithelial cells in initiation and propagation of intestinal inflammation. Eliminating the static: tight junction dynamics exposed.
    Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2006 Apr;290(4):G577-82 PMID: 16537969
  246. Toll-like receptor 4-dependent contribution of the immune system to anticancer chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
    Nat Med. 2007 Sep;13(9):1050-9 PMID: 17704786
  247. Dominant-negative TLR5 polymorphism reduces adaptive immune response to flagellin and negatively associates with Crohn's disease.
    Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2006 Jun;290(6):G1157-63 PMID: 16439468
  248. Intestinal bacteria trigger T cell-independent immunoglobulin A(2) class switching by inducing epithelial-cell secretion of the cytokine APRIL.
    Immunity. 2007 Jun;26(6):812-26 PMID: 17570691
  249. Nod2 mutation in Crohn's disease potentiates NF-kappaB activity and IL-1beta processing.
    Science. 2005 Feb 4;307(5710):734-8 PMID: 15692052
  250. Lymphoid tissue inducer-like cells are an innate source of IL-17 and IL-22.
    J Exp Med. 2009 Jan 16;206(1):35-41 PMID: 19114665
  251. Antibiotic therapy attenuates colitis in interleukin 10 gene-deficient mice.
    Gastroenterology. 2000 Jun;118(6):1094-105 PMID: 10833484
  252. Human CD14+ macrophages in intestinal lamina propria exhibit potent antigen-presenting ability.
    J Immunol. 2009 Aug 1;183(3):1724-31 PMID: 19592647
  253. ATP drives lamina propria T(H)17 cell differentiation.
    Nature. 2008 Oct 9;455(7214):808-12 PMID: 18716618
  254. Interleukin-23 restrains regulatory T cell activity to drive T cell-dependent colitis.
    Immunity. 2008 Apr;28(4):559-70 PMID: 18400195
  255. Development and maintenance of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT): the roles of enteric bacteria and viruses.
    Dev Immunol. 1998;6(1-2):13-8 PMID: 9716901
  256. The enhancing effect of the microbial flora on macrophage function and the immune response. A study in germfree mice.
    J Exp Med. 1966 Jun 1;123(6):1013-24 PMID: 5328828
  257. Adenosine receptors as therapeutic targets.
    Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2006 Mar;5(3):247-64 PMID: 16518376
  258. The number and distribution of lymphoid follicles in the human large intestine.
    J Anat. 1986 Dec;149:189-94 PMID: 3693106
  259. IgA adaptation to the presence of commensal bacteria in the intestine.
    Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2006;308:117-36 PMID: 16922088
  260. Obesity alters gut microbial ecology.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Aug 2;102(31):11070-5 PMID: 16033867
  261. Human intestinal epithelial cells are broadly unresponsive to Toll-like receptor 2-dependent bacterial ligands: implications for host-microbial interactions in the gut.
    J Immunol. 2003 Feb 1;170(3):1406-15 PMID: 12538701
  262. Mucosa-associated bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract are uniformly distributed along the colon and differ from the community recovered from feces.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 Jul;68(7):3401-7 PMID: 12089021
  263. Commensal DNA limits regulatory T cell conversion and is a natural adjuvant of intestinal immune responses.
    Immunity. 2008 Oct 17;29(4):637-49 PMID: 18835196
  264. A human natural killer cell subset provides an innate source of IL-22 for mucosal immunity.
    Nature. 2009 Feb 5;457(7230):722-5 PMID: 18978771
  265. Recognition of commensal microflora by toll-like receptors is required for intestinal homeostasis.
    Cell. 2004 Jul 23;118(2):229-41 PMID: 15260992
  266. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG decreases TNF-alpha production in lipopolysaccharide-activated murine macrophages by a contact-independent mechanism.
    Cell Microbiol. 2003 Apr;5(4):277-85 PMID: 12675685
  267. Gut microbiota composition and development of atopic manifestations in infancy: the KOALA Birth Cohort Study.
    Gut. 2007 May;56(5):661-7 PMID: 17047098
  268. T cell-mediated oral tolerance is intact in germ-free mice.
    Clin Exp Immunol. 2006 Mar;143(3):503-12 PMID: 16487250
  269. IL-17 and Th17 Cells.
    Annu Rev Immunol. 2009;27:485-517 PMID: 19132915
  270. Regulation of interleukin-12/interleukin-23 production and the T-helper 17 response in humans.
    Immunol Rev. 2008 Dec;226:112-31 PMID: 19161420
  271. Increase in the population of duodenal immunoglobulin A plasmocytes in axenic mice associated with different living or dead bacterial strains of intestinal origin.
    Infect Immun. 1978 Aug;21(2):532-9 PMID: 357289
  272. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin as a key initiator of allergic airway inflammation in mice.
    Nat Immunol. 2005 Oct;6(10):1047-53 PMID: 16142237
  273. Requirement for a bacterial flora before mice generate cells capable of mediating the delayed hypersensitivity reaction to sheep red blood cells.
    J Immunol. 1979 Jun;122(6):2624-9 PMID: 448137
  274. T cell-specific inactivation of the interleukin 10 gene in mice results in enhanced T cell responses but normal innate responses to lipopolysaccharide or skin irritation.
    J Exp Med. 2004 Nov 15;200(10):1289-97 PMID: 15534372
  275. Cutting edge: bacterial flagellin activates basolaterally expressed TLR5 to induce epithelial proinflammatory gene expression.
    J Immunol. 2001 Aug 15;167(4):1882-5 PMID: 11489966
  276. IL-10-dependent partial refractoriness to Toll-like receptor stimulation modulates gut mucosal dendritic cell function.
    Eur J Immunol. 2008 Jun;38(6):1533-47 PMID: 18461564
  277. Regulation of spontaneous intestinal tumorigenesis through the adaptor protein MyD88.
    Science. 2007 Jul 6;317(5834):124-7 PMID: 17615359
  278. Characterization of dendritic cells that induce tolerance and T regulatory 1 cell differentiation in vivo.
    Immunity. 2003 May;18(5):605-17 PMID: 12753738
  279. NOD2 transgenic mice exhibit enhanced MDP-mediated down-regulation of TLR2 responses and resistance to colitis induction.
    Gastroenterology. 2007 Nov;133(5):1510-21 PMID: 17915219
  280. Engineering the microflora to vaccinate the mucosa: serum immunoglobulin G responses and activated draining cervical lymph nodes following mucosal application of tetanus toxin fragment C-expressing lactobacilli.
    Immunology. 2000 Aug;100(4):510-8 PMID: 10929079
  281. Fecal microflora in healthy infants born by different methods of delivery: permanent changes in intestinal flora after cesarean delivery.
    J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1999 Jan;28(1):19-25 PMID: 9890463
  282. Monocyte-derived dendritic cells activated by bacteria or by bacteria-stimulated epithelial cells are functionally different.
    Blood. 2005 Oct 15;106(8):2818-26 PMID: 16030185
  283. Genomic and metabolic studies of the impact of probiotics on a model gut symbiont and host.
    PLoS Biol. 2006 Nov;4(12):e413 PMID: 17132046
  284. Mucosal histamine content and histamine secretion in Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis and allergic enteropathy.
    Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 1995 Oct;108(2):127-33 PMID: 7549499
  285. Evidence for the use of probiotics and prebiotics in inflammatory bowel disease: a review of clinical trials.
    Proc Nutr Soc. 2007 Aug;66(3):307-15 PMID: 17637082
  286. Persistent intestinal neuromuscular dysfunction after acute nematode infection in mice.
    Gastroenterology. 1997 Oct;113(4):1224-32 PMID: 9322517
  287. Caesarean section delivery and the risk of allergic disorders in childhood.
    Clin Exp Allergy. 2005 Nov;35(11):1466-72 PMID: 16297144
  288. CD4+ T cells reactive to enteric bacterial antigens in spontaneously colitic C3H/HeJBir mice: increased T helper cell type 1 response and ability to transfer disease.
    J Exp Med. 1998 Mar 16;187(6):855-64 PMID: 9500788
  289. A distinct array of proinflammatory cytokines is expressed in human colon epithelial cells in response to bacterial invasion.
    J Clin Invest. 1995 Jan;95(1):55-65 PMID: 7814646
  290. [Induction of homologous disease in axenic (germ-free) newborn mice].
    C R Acad Hebd Seances Acad Sci D. 1965 May 3;260(18):4862-4 PMID: 4954321
  291. Human intestinal epithelial cells promote the differentiation of tolerogenic dendritic cells.
    Gut. 2009 Nov;58(11):1481-9 PMID: 19570762
  292. A novel model of inflammatory bowel disease: mice deficient for the multiple drug resistance gene, mdr1a, spontaneously develop colitis.
    J Immunol. 1998 Nov 15;161(10):5733-44 PMID: 9820555
  293. Dendritic cells derived from murine colonic mucosa have unique functional and phenotypic characteristics.
    J Immunol. 2007 Jun 15;178(12):7984-93 PMID: 17548635
  294. Paneth cells directly sense gut commensals and maintain homeostasis at the intestinal host-microbial interface.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Dec 30;105(52):20858-63 PMID: 19075245
  295. Antigen processing and presentation by intestinal epithelial cells - polarity and complexity.
    Immunol Today. 2000 Mar;21(3):123-8 PMID: 10689299
  296. MyD88-mediated signals induce the bactericidal lectin RegIII gamma and protect mice against intestinal Listeria monocytogenes infection.
    J Exp Med. 2007 Aug 6;204(8):1891-900 PMID: 17635956
  297. Antigen targeting to MHC class II-enriched late endosomes in colonic epithelial cells: trafficking of luminal antigens studied in vivo in Crohn's colitis patients.
    FASEB J. 2006 Feb;20(2):359-61 PMID: 16373401
  298. Influences of long-term antibiotic administration on Peyer's patch lymphocytes and mucosal immunoglobulin A levels in a mouse model.
    JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2006 Sep-Oct;30(5):395-8; discussion 399 PMID: 16931607
  299. Commensal microbiota is fundamental for the development of inflammatory pain.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Feb 12;105(6):2193-7 PMID: 18268332
  300. Dendritic cells in germ-free and specific pathogen-free mice have similar phenotypes and in vitro antigen presenting function.
    Immunol Lett. 2006 Jan 15;102(1):16-24 PMID: 16105690
  301. Colitogenic Th1 cells are present in the antigen-experienced T cell pool in normal mice: control by CD4+ regulatory T cells and IL-10.
    J Immunol. 2003 Jul 15;171(2):971-8 PMID: 12847269
  302. Contribution of adenosine A2B receptors to inflammatory parameters of experimental colitis.
    J Immunol. 2009 Apr 15;182(8):4957-64 PMID: 19342675
  303. Origin and fate of IgE-bearing lymphocytes. I. Peyer's patches as differentiation site of cells. Simultaneously bearing IgA and IgE.
    J Exp Med. 1981 Sep 1;154(3):640-8 PMID: 6974216
  304. Toll-like receptor 2 controls mucosal inflammation by regulating epithelial barrier function.
    Gastroenterology. 2007 Apr;132(4):1359-74 PMID: 17408640
  305. Preferential induction of polyclonal IgA secretion by murine Peyer's patch dendritic cell-T cell mixtures.
    J Exp Med. 1984 Sep 1;160(3):941-6 PMID: 6332171
  306. Serum protein fractions and antibody studies in gnotobiotic animals reared germfree or monocontaminated.
    Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1961 Aug 31;94:210-7 PMID: 13782512
  307. Inflammatory bowel disease.
    N Engl J Med. 2002 Aug 8;347(6):417-29 PMID: 12167685
  308. Commensal enteric bacteria engender a self-limiting humoral mucosal immune response while permanently colonizing the gut.
    Infect Immun. 1995 Oct;63(10):3904-13 PMID: 7558298
  309. Keratin-8-deficient mice develop chronic spontaneous Th2 colitis amenable to antibiotic treatment.
    J Cell Sci. 2005 May 1;118(Pt 9):1971-80 PMID: 15840656
  310. Regulatory T cells reinforce intestinal homeostasis.
    Immunity. 2009 Sep 18;31(3):401-11 PMID: 19766083
  311. Basophils function as antigen-presenting cells for an allergen-induced T helper type 2 response.
    Nat Immunol. 2009 Jul;10(7):713-20 PMID: 19465907
  312. Helminth products bypass the need for TSLP in Th2 immune responses by directly modulating dendritic cell function.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Aug 18;106(33):13968-73 PMID: 19666528
  313. The requirement of intestinal bacterial flora for the development of an IgE production system fully susceptible to oral tolerance induction.
    J Immunol. 1997 Aug 15;159(4):1739-45 PMID: 9257835
  314. The failure of oral tolerance induction is functionally coupled to the absence of T cells in Peyer's patches under germfree conditions.
    Immunobiology. 2001 Dec;204(4):442-57 PMID: 11776399
  315. Effector and memory CTL differentiation.
    Annu Rev Immunol. 2007;25:171-92 PMID: 17129182
  316. Inflammatory bowel disease: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutic opportunities.
    Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2006 Jan;12 Suppl 1:S3-9 PMID: 16378007
  317. Differential alteration in intestinal epithelial cell expression of toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and TLR4 in inflammatory bowel disease.
    Infect Immun. 2000 Dec;68(12):7010-7 PMID: 11083826
  318. Recognition of microorganisms and activation of the immune response.
    Nature. 2007 Oct 18;449(7164):819-26 PMID: 17943118
  319. The pathophysiology of asthma.
    Annu Rev Med. 2002;53:477-98 PMID: 11818486
  320. Mode of delivery is associated with asthma and allergy occurrences in children.
    Ann Epidemiol. 2006 May;16(5):341-6 PMID: 16242961
  321. Morphological and physiological characterization of germfree life.
    Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1959 May 8;78:208-20 PMID: 13851201
  322. Topical vitamin D3 and low-calcemic analogs induce thymic stromal lymphopoietin in mouse keratinocytes and trigger an atopic dermatitis.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Aug 1;103(31):11736-41 PMID: 16880407
  323. Butyrate inhibits NF-kappaB activation in lamina propria macrophages of patients with ulcerative colitis.
    Scand J Gastroenterol. 2002 Apr;37(4):458-66 PMID: 11989838
  324. Gut IgA class switch recombination in the absence of CD40 does not occur in the lamina propria and is independent of germinal centers.
    J Immunol. 2006 Dec 1;177(11):7772-83 PMID: 17114448
  325. Experimental models of inflammatory bowel disease reveal innate, adaptive, and regulatory mechanisms of host dialogue with the microbiota.
    Immunol Rev. 2005 Aug;206:260-76 PMID: 16048554
  326. NOD2 is a negative regulator of Toll-like receptor 2-mediated T helper type 1 responses.
    Nat Immunol. 2004 Aug;5(8):800-8 PMID: 15220916
  327. TLR9 is required for the gut-associated lymphoid tissue response following oral infection of Toxoplasma gondii.
    J Immunol. 2006 Jun 15;176(12):7589-97 PMID: 16751405
  328. The microbiology of butyrate formation in the human colon.
    FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2002 Dec 17;217(2):133-9 PMID: 12480096
  329. Fecal bacteriology of colonic polyp patients and control patients.
    Cancer Res. 1975 Nov;35(11 Pt. 2):3407-17 PMID: 1192408
  330. Prophylaxis of pouchitis onset with probiotic therapy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
    Gastroenterology. 2003 May;124(5):1202-9 PMID: 12730861
  331. A human homologue of the Drosophila Toll protein signals activation of adaptive immunity.
    Nature. 1997 Jul 24;388(6640):394-7 PMID: 9237759
  332. Antibiotics with a selective aerobic or anaerobic spectrum have different therapeutic activities in various regions of the colon in interleukin 10 gene deficient mice.
    Gut. 2003 Dec;52(12):1721-7 PMID: 14633949
  333. Probiotics prevent IgE-associated allergy until age 5 years in cesarean-delivered children but not in the total cohort.
    J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009 Feb;123(2):335-41 PMID: 19135235
  334. A role for TSLP in the development of inflammation in an asthma model.
    J Exp Med. 2005 Sep 19;202(6):829-39 PMID: 16172260
  335. Spontaneous atopic dermatitis in mice expressing an inducible thymic stromal lymphopoietin transgene specifically in the skin.
    J Exp Med. 2005 Aug 15;202(4):541-9 PMID: 16103410
  336. Crohn's disease-associated NOD2 variants share a signaling defect in response to lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan.
    Gastroenterology. 2003 Jan;124(1):140-6 PMID: 12512038
  337. A functionally specialized population of mucosal CD103+ DCs induces Foxp3+ regulatory T cells via a TGF-beta and retinoic acid-dependent mechanism.
    J Exp Med. 2007 Aug 6;204(8):1757-64 PMID: 17620361
  338. MHC class II-dependent basophil-CD4+ T cell interactions promote T(H)2 cytokine-dependent immunity.
    Nat Immunol. 2009 Jul;10(7):697-705 PMID: 19465906
  339. The mitogenic activity of lipopolysaccharide for spleen cells from germfree, conventional, and gnotobiotic rats.
    Can J Microbiol. 1979 Sep;25(9):1087-93 PMID: 540263
  340. Fulminant jejuno-ileitis following ablation of enteric glia in adult transgenic mice.
    Cell. 1998 Apr 17;93(2):189-201 PMID: 9568712
  341. The microbial ecology of the large bowel of breast-fed and formula-fed infants during the first year of life.
    J Med Microbiol. 1982 May;15(2):189-203 PMID: 7143428
  342. Apathogenic, intestinal, segmented, filamentous bacteria stimulate the mucosal immune system of mice.
    Infect Immun. 1993 Jan;61(1):303-6 PMID: 8418051
  343. Nod-like proteins in immunity, inflammation and disease.
    Nat Immunol. 2006 Dec;7(12):1250-7 PMID: 17110941
  344. An anti-HIV microbicide engineered in commensal bacteria: secretion of HIV-1 fusion inhibitors by lactobacilli.
    AIDS. 2006 Oct 3;20(15):1917-22 PMID: 16988512
  345. Probiotics and prebiotic galacto-oligosaccharides in the prevention of allergic diseases: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
    J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007 Jan;119(1):192-8 PMID: 17208601
  346. The absence of gut flora, the doses of antigen ingested and aging affect the long-term peripheral tolerance induced by ovalbumin feeding in mice.
    Res Immunol. 1996 Jan;147(1):49-59 PMID: 8739328
  347. IL-2-deficient mice raised under germfree conditions develop delayed mild focal intestinal inflammation.
    Am J Physiol. 1999 Jun;276(6):G1461-72 PMID: 10362650
  348. Toxigenic and non-toxigenic Clostridium difficile: determinants of intestinal colonisation and role in childhood atopic manifestations.
    Gut. 2008 Jul;57(7):1025-6 PMID: 18559395
  349. Uptake of antigens from the intestine by dendritic cells.
    Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004 Dec;1029:75-82 PMID: 15681746
  350. Microbial flora drives interleukin 22 production in intestinal NKp46+ cells that provide innate mucosal immune defense.
    Immunity. 2008 Dec 19;29(6):958-70 PMID: 19084435
  351. Nod2-dependent regulation of innate and adaptive immunity in the intestinal tract.
    Science. 2005 Feb 4;307(5710):731-4 PMID: 15692051
  352. Immunomodulatory dendritic cells in intestinal lamina propria.
    Eur J Immunol. 2005 Jun;35(6):1831-40 PMID: 16010704
  353. The bacterial colonization of the large bowel of pre-term low birth weight neonates.
    J Hyg (Lond). 1982 Aug;89(1):59-67 PMID: 7097003
  354. Oral bacteriotherapy as maintenance treatment in patients with chronic pouchitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
    Gastroenterology. 2000 Aug;119(2):305-9 PMID: 10930365
  355. Intestinal dendritic cells increase T cell expression of alpha4beta7 integrin.
    Eur J Immunol. 2002 May;32(5):1445-54 PMID: 11981833
  356. Antigen sampling across epithelial barriers and induction of mucosal immune responses.
    Annu Rev Immunol. 1996;14:275-300 PMID: 8717516
  357. Therapy of mucosal candidiasis by expression of an anti-idiotype in human commensal bacteria.
    Nat Biotechnol. 2000 Oct;18(10):1060-4 PMID: 11017043
  358. Genetics and biogenesis of bacterial flagella.
    Annu Rev Genet. 1992;26:131-58 PMID: 1482109
  359. Influence of the normal flora on mucosal morphology and cellular renewal in the ileum. A comparison of germ-free and conventional mice.
    Lab Invest. 1963 Mar;12:355-64 PMID: 14010768
  360. Once daily high dose probiotic therapy (VSL#3) for maintaining remission in recurrent or refractory pouchitis.
    Gut. 2004 Jan;53(1):108-14 PMID: 14684584
  361. RORgammat and commensal microflora are required for the differentiation of mucosal interleukin 22-producing NKp46+ cells.
    Nat Immunol. 2009 Jan;10(1):83-91 PMID: 19029903
  362. The interleukin-23 axis in intestinal inflammation.
    Immunol Rev. 2008 Dec;226:147-59 PMID: 19161422
  363. Intestinal floras of populations that have a high risk of colon cancer.
    Appl Environ Microbiol. 1995 Sep;61(9):3202-7 PMID: 7574628
  364. Symbiotic bacteria direct expression of an intestinal bactericidal lectin.
    Science. 2006 Aug 25;313(5790):1126-30 PMID: 16931762
  365. Antibiotic-induced perturbations of the intestinal microbiota alter host susceptibility to enteric infection.
    Infect Immun. 2008 Oct;76(10):4726-36 PMID: 18678663
  366. Factors influencing the composition of the intestinal microbiota in early infancy.
    Pediatrics. 2006 Aug;118(2):511-21 PMID: 16882802
  367. Inducible expression of the proallergic cytokine thymic stromal lymphopoietin in airway epithelial cells is controlled by NFkappaB.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Jan 16;104(3):914-9 PMID: 17213320
  368. A genome-wide association study identifies IL23R as an inflammatory bowel disease gene.
    Science. 2006 Dec 1;314(5804):1461-3 PMID: 17068223
  369. The toll-like receptor signaling molecule Myd88 contributes to pancreatic beta-cell homeostasis in response to injury.
    PLoS One. 2009;4(4):e5063 PMID: 19357791
  370. Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora.
    Science. 2005 Jun 10;308(5728):1635-8 PMID: 15831718
  371. A major role for intestinal epithelial nucleotide oligomerization domain 1 (NOD1) in eliciting host bactericidal immune responses to Campylobacter jejuni.
    Cell Microbiol. 2007 Oct;9(10):2404-16 PMID: 17521327
  372. An immunomodulatory molecule of symbiotic bacteria directs maturation of the host immune system.
    Cell. 2005 Jul 15;122(1):107-18 PMID: 16009137
  373. Developing lymph nodes collect CD4+CD3- LTbeta+ cells that can differentiate to APC, NK cells, and follicular cells but not T or B cells.
    Immunity. 1997 Oct;7(4):493-504 PMID: 9354470
  374. Lipopolysaccharide activates distinct signaling pathways in intestinal epithelial cell lines expressing Toll-like receptors.
    J Immunol. 2000 Jan 15;164(2):966-72 PMID: 10623846
  375. Differential regulation of B7 mRNA in enterocytes and lymphoid cells.
    Immunology. 1993 Jul;79(3):434-8 PMID: 7691725
  376. Induction of intestinal Th17 cells by segmented filamentous bacteria.
    Cell. 2009 Oct 30;139(3):485-98 PMID: 19836068
  377. Commensal microbiota alter the abundance and TCR responsiveness of splenic naïve CD4+ T lymphocytes.
    Clin Immunol. 2005 Dec;117(3):221-30 PMID: 16290233
  378. CCR7 is critically important for migration of dendritic cells in intestinal lamina propria to mesenteric lymph nodes.
    J Immunol. 2006 Jan 15;176(2):803-10 PMID: 16393963
  379. Proliferative recruitment of intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes after microbial colonization of germ-free mice.
    Eur J Immunol. 1996 Apr;26(4):945-8 PMID: 8625993
  380. Defensins: antimicrobial peptides of innate immunity.
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2003 Sep;3(9):710-20 PMID: 12949495
  381. Gender disparity in liver cancer due to sex differences in MyD88-dependent IL-6 production.
    Science. 2007 Jul 6;317(5834):121-4 PMID: 17615358
  382. IgA responses in the intestinal mucosa against pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms.
    Microbes Infect. 2001 Oct;3(12):1021-35 PMID: 11580989
  383. Human fetal lymphoid tissue-inducer cells are interleukin 17-producing precursors to RORC+ CD127+ natural killer-like cells.
    Nat Immunol. 2009 Jan;10(1):66-74 PMID: 19029905
  384. Intestinal alkaline phosphatase detoxifies lipopolysaccharide and prevents inflammation in zebrafish in response to the gut microbiota.
    Cell Host Microbe. 2007 Dec 13;2(6):371-82 PMID: 18078689
  385. Oral tolerance originates in the intestinal immune system and relies on antigen carriage by dendritic cells.
    J Exp Med. 2006 Mar 20;203(3):519-27 PMID: 16533884
  386. Toll-like receptor 4 signaling by intestinal microbes influences susceptibility to food allergy.
    J Immunol. 2004 Jun 1;172(11):6978-87 PMID: 15153518
  387. A bacterial carbohydrate links innate and adaptive responses through Toll-like receptor 2.
    J Exp Med. 2006 Dec 25;203(13):2853-63 PMID: 17178920
  388. Prokaryotes: the unseen majority.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 Jun 9;95(12):6578-83 PMID: 9618454
  389. Development and cytolytic function of intestinal intraepithelial T lymphocytes in antigen-minimized mice.
    Immunology. 1996 Oct;89(2):268-73 PMID: 8943725
  390. Functional specialization of gut CD103+ dendritic cells in the regulation of tissue-selective T cell homing.
    J Exp Med. 2005 Oct 17;202(8):1063-73 PMID: 16216890
  391. Reduction in diversity of the colonic mucosa associated bacterial microflora in patients with active inflammatory bowel disease.
    Gut. 2004 May;53(5):685-93 PMID: 15082587
  392. Role of anaerobic bacteria in the metabolic welfare of the colonic mucosa in man.
    Gut. 1980 Sep;21(9):793-8 PMID: 7429343
  393. Antibodies to interleukin 12 abrogate established experimental colitis in mice.
    J Exp Med. 1995 Nov 1;182(5):1281-90 PMID: 7595199
Article Info
Journal
Annual review of immunology
Abbr.
Annu Rev Immunol
ISSN
1545-3278
DOI
10.1146/annurev-immunol-030409-101330
Published
2010-00-00
Pages
623-67
Language
English
Region
United States
NLM ID
8309206
PMCID
PMC5610356
Subset
IM
Grants
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI074878 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · T32-AI060516 · United States
NCI NIH HHS · T32-CA09140-30 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · T32-AI055438-06 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · F32-AI72943 · United States
NCI NIH HHS · T32 CA009140 · United States
NCRR NIH HHS · S10 RR024525 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · T32 AI055438 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · T32-AI007532-08 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · T32 AI060516 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · AI74878 · United States
NIGMS NIH HHS · F31 GM082187 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI061570 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · T32-AI05528 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · T32 AI007532 · United States
NIGMS NIH HHS · F31-GM082187 · United States
NCRR NIH HHS · S10RR024525 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · F32 AI072943 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · AI61570 · United States
External Links
PubMed source DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-030409-101330 PMC Full Text View journal details
Analysis Services
Analysis Services

Contact

No. 2 Wenbo Road, Zhangqiu District, Jinan, Shandong

Qilu Normal University · Genelibs Bioinformatics Lab

750 Shunhua Rd, Jinan

2F, Bldg F, University Science Park

Tel: 0531-88819269

WeChat Official Account

Follow our WeChat subscription account for real-time updates and the latest in medical and biological research.


Business Email

E-mail: product@genelibs.com

Copyright © 2026.Genelibs Jinan Honghui Biotechnology Co., Ltd. 鲁ICP备20007159号-2